R Nagarajan

Coal is the one of the world's most abundant fossil fuel resources. It is not a clean fuel, as it contains ash and sulfur. SOx as a pollutant are a real threat to both the ecosystem and to human health. There are numerous de-sulfurization methods to control SO2 emissions. Nowadays, online flue gas de-sulfurization is being used as one such method to remove sulfur from coal during combustion. The biggest disadvantage associated with this method is formation of by-products (FGD gypsum). A way for effective usage of FGD gypsum has not yet been found. This will lead to acute and chronic effects to humans as well as plants. Power ultrasound can be used for the beneficiation of coal by the removal of sulfur from coal prior to coal combustion. The main effects of ultrasound in liquid medium are acoustic cavitation and acoustic streaming. The process of formation, growth and implosion of bubbles is called cavitation. Bulk fluid motion due to sound energy absorption is known as acoustic streaming. In addition, coupling of an acoustic field to water produces OH radicals, H 2O2, O2, ozone and HO2 that are strong oxidizing agents. Oxidation that occurs due to ultrasound is called Advanced Oxidation Process (AOP). It converts sulfur from coal to water-soluble sulphates. Conventional chemical-based soaking and stirring methods are compared here to ultrasonic methods of de-sulfurization. The main advantages of ultrasonic de-sulfurization over conventional methods, the mechanism involved in ultrasonic de-sulfurization and the difference between aqueous-based and solvent-based (2 N HNO3, 3-volume percentage H2O 2) de-sulfurization are investigated experimentally. © 2010 Elsevier B.V.

Cavitation erosion is predominant in pipelines for liquid transportation, causing damage to pipe wall, impeller and their accessories. The present study is focused on development of cavitation -wear resistant nano-ceramic particle-reinforced polymer matrix material; and on study of its feasibility to be used as lining material in hydraulic transportation. The polymer/nano composite is fabricated using power ultrasound in all three process steps: synthesis of nano-dimensional particles of white fused alumina (WFA) from micron size particles, optimized blending and finally reinforcement into poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) matrix. The effect of ultrasonic parameters on nanocomposite/ virgin polymers (like polyethylene and polypropylene) is studied by measuring mass loss of the materials and suspension turbidity during exposure time. At low frequency (20-60 kHz), cavitation intensity is predominant; this effect is utilized for fabricating sub-micron particles, and for performing accelerated cavitation erosion tests. At high frequency, acoustic streaming is predominant; this effect is utilized for blending and reinforcing of the nano ceramic particles into polymer matrix. The size and quantity of the particles generated by cavitation erosion was analyzed by Laser Particle Size Analyzer (20 nm-1400 micron range). The nano-composite coupons were analyzed before and after the ultrasonic erosion test using SEM. It is concluded that lowfrequency sonication is a viable option for cavitaton erosion testing of ceramic/polymer composites.

Cavitation erosion is predominant in pipelines for liquid transportation, causing damage to pipe wall, impeller and their accessories. The present study is focused on development of cavitation -wear resistant nano-ceramic particle-reinforced polymer matrix material; and on study of its feasibility to be used as lining material in hydraulic transportation. The polymer/nano composite is fabricated using power ultrasound in all three process steps: synthesis of nano-dimensional particles of white fused alumina (WFA) from micron size particles, optimized blending and finally reinforcement into poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) matrix. The effect of ultrasonic parameters on nano-composite/ virgin polymers (like polyethylene and polypropylene) is studied by measuring mass loss of the materials and suspension turbidity during exposure time. At low frequency (20-60 kHz), cavitation intensity is predominant; this effect is utilized for fabricating sub-micron particles, and for performing accelerated cavitation erosion tests. At high frequency, acoustic streaming is predominant; this effect is utilized for blending and reinforcing of the nano ceramic particles into polymer matrix. The size and quantity of the particles generated by cavitation erosion was analyzed by Laser Particle Size Analyzer (20 nm-1400 micron range). The nano-composite coupons were analyzed before and after the ultrasonic erosion test using SEM. It is concluded that low-frequency sonication is a viable option for cavitaton erosion testing of ceramic/polymer composites.

In this paper, we describe an experimental study undertaken to investigate ultrasonic fields in the frequency range 58-192 kHz with respect to their surface cleaning and erosion potential. Measurements are performed using three different methods - gravimetric weight-loss, surface profilometry, and precision turbidimetry - to assess these mechanisms for a variety of materials, including semiconductors. Conclusions are drawn regarding the nature of interaction between high-frequency, high-intensity ultrasonic fields and immersed surfaces. Recommendations are provided for optimal settings to maximize surface cleanability and minimize erodibility of sensitive substrates. © 2006 IEEE.

This paper investigates the accelerated mixing of hot and cold liquid layers in storage tanks of different physical dimensions by the application of high-frequency, high-intensity pulsed ultrasound. In pulsed operation, the ultrasonic field is switched on for a few seconds and then switched off. This cycle is repeated several times. Pulsed mixing of hot and cold water due to ultrasonics was measured in this study. Acoustic streaming and cavitation phenomena associated with the ultrasonic field can induce enhanced mixing in the storage containers leading to de-stratification of liquid. The experimental results indicate that dual frequency operation, which combines one high-frequency mode with one low-frequency mode, is optimal in enhancing mixing compared to other frequencies. Mixing efficiency increases with cavitation intensity and the introduction of acoustic streaming augments it further. The experimental result indicates that as the height of the cylinder increases, the mixing time also increases. The ultrasonic mixing times obtained for different frequencies indicate that as the frequency increases, the time required to reach the steady state temperature also increases, due to decrease in cavitation intensity. © 2008 The Institution of Chemical Engineers.

Deposition of fly ash particles onto heat-transfer surfaces is often one of the reasons for unscheduled shut-downs of coal-fired boilers. Fouling deposits encountered in convective sections of a boiler are characterized by arrival of ash particles in solidified (solid) state. Fouling is most frequently caused by condensation and chemical reaction of alkali vapors with the deposited ash particles creating a wet surface conducive to collect impacting ash particles. Hence, the amount of alkali elements present in coals, which, in turn, is available in the flue gas as condensable vapors, determines the formation and growth of fouling deposits. In this context, removal of alkali elements becomes vital when inferior coals having high-ash content are utilized for power generation. With the concept of reducing alkali elements present in a coal entering the combustor, whereby the fouling deposits can either be minimized or be weakened due to absence of alkali gluing effect, the ultrasonic leaching of alkali elements from coals is investigated in this study. Ultrasonic water-washing and chemical-washing, in comparison with agitation, are studied in order to estimate the intensification of the alkali removal process by sonication.